ASTANA – There have long been close connections, cultural exchanges, and mutual influences between the Iranian and Turkic worlds, known since ancient times as Iran and Turan, according to Galiya Kambarbekova, an orientalist and Iranian studies scholar at Al-Farabi Kazakh National University.
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In an interview with Kazinform, Kambarbekova discussed what information about the Kazakh steppes has been preserved in Persian sources. She said Persian manuscripts often mention Iranians traveling to Kazakh lands for various reasons.
“In their writings and memoirs, they describe, ‘We traveled for more than 20 to 50 days, moving northward. It was cold; the local people wore warm clothing made of fur,’” she said.
The largest number of Persian historical sources appeared during the Mongol era. When Hulagu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, launched his second western campaign, he reached the territories of present-day Iran, Iraq, and Azerbaijan.
Galiya Kambarbekova, an orientalist and Iranian studies scholar at Al-Farabi Kazakh National University. Photo credit: inform.kz
Kambarbekova explained that after conquering Baghdad and assuming the title of Ilkhan, Hulagu asked locals what their people excelled at. They replied that their strength lay in writing, knowledge and scholarship and that their power was in “the pen and the word.” Impressed, Hulagu asked whether anyone could record the history of his grandfather, Genghis Khan.
“Thus began a great collaboration between Hulagu Khan and Iranian historians, marking the start of major historical works,” she said.
During Hulagu’s reign, historian Ala al-Din Ata Malik ibn Muhammad Juvayni wrote “Tarikh-i Jahangushay” (The History of the World Conqueror). The book presented the first comprehensive Persian accounts of Turkic-Mongol tribes, including their lifestyles, geography, customs, and political structures.
She noted that Hulagu’s great-grandson Ghazan Khan commissioned an even more ambitious project, “Jami’ al-Tawarikh” (The Compendium of Chronicles) by Rashid al-Din, which covered not only Genghis Khan’s history but also that of numerous Turkic tribes.
“In these works, the narrative begins with the Prophet Noah, and it is mentioned that Turkic-Mongol tribes descend from his son Japheth. From that point on, including the Turkic-Mongols in the broader historical narrative became a standard tradition,” said Kambarbekova.
From the 13th through the early 19th centuries, Persian texts consistently referenced Turkic-Mongol tribes, sometimes briefly, but always notably. Every shah (a title for a monarch or king, especially in Persia and the Middle East) had an official court historian who carefully documented his reign, alliances, wars, and treaties.
“Even when Iranian shahs commissioned their own histories, the works included not only victories but also defeats. While they could portray themselves as heroic, some accounts offer surprisingly balanced portrayals. Our task as scholars is to determine where the author exaggerated and where they were objective,” said Kambarbekova.
Hagiographic works as historical sources
According to Kambarbekova, another important category of Persian writing from the Middle Ages is hagiographic and religious literature – biographies of Sufi saints and sheikhs, collections of sayings, and theological treatises.
“Many Sufis and sheikhs played crucial roles in mediating conflicts, leading peace missions, and advising sultans and shahs. Their names often appear alongside ambassadors and translators, making these texts valuable historical records,” she said.
Kambarbekova categorized Persian historical sources into three main types: commissioned chronicles, court manuscripts and hagiographic works.
“By studying them together, we can reconstruct a holistic picture of historical events, sometimes from just a few lines or even a single sentence,” she said.
Kassym Khan in Persian sources
Persian chronicles frequently mention Kassym Khan as a powerful ruler with a large army and a strong strategy. References to him appear even before his ascension in 1511, when he was still a sultan.
“Although Kassym had not yet become khan, his influence was significant. He actively opposed Muhammad Shaybani, leading campaigns to defend his lands. These events are detailed in Persian sources,” said Kambarbekova.
Sources such as “Tarikh-i Alam-ara-yi Shah Ismail” and “Tarikh-i Safaviyye” describe Kassym Khan’s capital in Saraishyk, noting that the journey there from Khorasan took around six months.
Kambarbekova noted that they depict him as a stern but commanding leader, often compared to Genghis Khan, with a striking appearance and strong presence. His hospitality was well known.
Recent reconstructions portray Kassym Khan seated on a throne adorned with lions, a common symbol of authority across Eastern and Western traditions.
Persian sources also note that his people primarily followed the Sunni madhhab and that his realm extended across the vast Desht-i Kipchak.
“In Persian texts, Desht-i Kipchak is described as stretching about six thousand kilometers, from Saraishyk to the borders of China. This corresponds closely with the actual geography of Kazakhstan,” Kambarbekova said.
Travel through the region was difficult in winter due to snow and severe frost — a fact consistent with historical accounts of Shaybanid invasions, when Kazakh forces would retreat northward, forcing enemies to halt.
Even in the 19th century, Persian diplomatic writings, such as those of Mirza Muhammad Yusuf ibn Sufi Rajab Bai Kishi Bukhari, the envoy of Amir Haidar Tura, still referred to the region as Desht-i Kipchak during his travels from Bukhara to St. Petersburg and Constantinople.
“It is fascinating that the term Desht-i Kipchak persisted into the 19th century, when the Kazakh Khanate began to weaken. The Kazakh Khanate still existed at that time. Although there are few records about the Kazakh khans, we know that their territory was vast, and the people were scattered. Yet, they maintained close ties, could unite quickly and mobilize when needed,” said Kambarbekova.
Persian influence on Turkic chronicles
After Rashid al-Din’s “Jami’ al-Tawarikh”, several works appeared under the same title, including Kadırgali Jalairi’s “Zhami‘ al-Tawarikh”, a Turkic-language chronicle often considered one of the earliest histories of the Kazakh Khanate.
Drawing upon Rashid al-Din’s Persian work, Jalairi chronicled the lineage of Genghis Khan and his descendants, focusing on Sultan Oraz-Muhammad.
“From the 15th and 16th centuries onward, the number of Turkic-Chagatai historical works grew substantially. Many drew heavily from Persian sources,” said Kambarbekova.
Under the Timurids, numerous histories appeared, including “Zafar-nama”, “Timur-nama” and “Mu‘izz al-Ansab”, which continued to reference Persian predecessors.
Kambarbekova mentioned that in Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat’s “Tarikh-i Rashidi,” many passages cite or directly quote “Zafar-nama,” showing the scholarly tradition of building upon earlier texts.
“Such intertextual continuity, referencing and quoting previous authors, was a defining feature of medieval historiography,” she said.
The article was originally published in Kazinform.
